The Historic Centre of Florence

Between the 15th and 16th century, under the aristocratic rule of the Medici family, the city reached its peak becoming the home of some of the most important artists and intellectuals of the time. Painters such as Masaccio, Paolo Uccello, Sandro Botticelli and Raphael; architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti; sculptors such as Luca della Robbia; writers and musicians such as Poliziano and Landino and eclectic, versatile artists such as Michelangelo, Donatello and Leonardo Da Vinci created some of the most important masterpieces of human genius and intelligence in Florence. In addition to artists Florence was also home to intellectuals of the utmost renown like Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola, which can rightly be considered among the makers and shapers of the very concepts of “Humanism” and “Renaissance.” In 1982, Florence was one of the earliest Italian cities to be included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, due to its importance in the field of town-planning, architecture and art in general.

Florence had been a powerful commune and republic but it reached its true glory under the leadership of the Medici family. The powerful Signoria, who ruled the city up until the 18th century, had amazing foresight and chose to sponsor and support the arts and culture as a means to magnify Florence’s own greatness. Lorenzo de’ Medici, also called the Magnificent (1449-1492) is the brightest example of the Medici patronage. An excellent politician, humanist intellectual and prodigal patron, under Lorenzo Florence became a vital player, the only force capable of tipping, maintaining or restoring balance in the delicate scenario of Italian 15th century politics.

Florence is an amazing city where public and religious spaces are juxtaposed and sometimes even overlap. Piazza del Duomo is the spiritual centre of the city. The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, often called simply the Duomo, dominated by the imposing dome (by Filippo Brunelleschi), and together with the Giotto bell tower and the Baptistery of San Giovanni fill the square with their majesty. Near the square the basilicas of Santa Maria Novella , San Lorenzo and Santa Croce together form an amazing landscape of the major church complexes on the right bank on the Arno. Piazza della Signoria, home of Florence’s main administrative centre, is dominated by the imposing silhouette of the so-called Palazzo Vecchio which for centuries was the seat of political and aristocratic power and which also is home to some of the most important works of Renaissance sculpture. In addition to that replicas of statues by Benvenuto Cellini, Donatello, Michelangelo, Giambologna and Bandinelli can be found on the Arengario of the palace, near the entrance or sheltered by the Loggia della Signoria (also called “Loggia dei Lanzi”) lodge (the originals are kept in various museums in Florence). To the South of the square, connected to the Palace through the Vasari Corridor (a covered elevated walkway that leads to Forte Belvedere), the Uffizi Museum Complex contains masterpieces by Giotto, Cimabue, Donatello, Leonardo, Botticelli, Titian, Caravaggio and several other artists, covering a time span ranging from the Middle Ages until the 19th century, as well as ancient Roman and Hellenistic copies of original Greek sculptures. Ponte Vecchio, with its rich, prestigious goldsmith and silversmith shops connects the right bank with the Oltrarno district where Palazzo Pitti, home of the Medici family from the mid-sixteenth century onwards, is located. The garden of the palace, known as “Giardino di Boboli” (Boboli garden) is one of the most beautiful and famous examples of Italian garden decorated with sculptures from various ages, from ancient Rome to the contemporary age. The most important spiritual centres of Oltrarno are definitely the Santo Spirito and Carmine basilicas with the famous frescoes by Masaccio and Masolino.

The Florentia medieval commune was originally an Etruscan settlement and was made a Roman colony in 59 BC by Julius Caesar. The city’s prestige grew in the late imperial period, when it became the capital of the Tuscia et Humbria province in 287. Florentia became a bishopric in the early 4th century and during the upheavals of the fifth and sixth centuries it was a staunch, proud Roman and Byzantine stronghold capable of withstanding the attacks of the Ostrogoths (405) and the siege of Totila. In the early Middle Ages Florence retained its importance: as part of the Lombard kingdom it was made the seat of a Gastaldo and of a curtis regia and in the Carolingian era it became even more important as one of the centres of diffusion of the Frankish Kings’ reform projects. The Ottonians made Florence a County and a key tool to wrest power from the Margraves of Tuscany. During the investiture controversy Florence took the side of the church alongside Matilda of Canossa and began to assert its primacy over the neighbouring contado (county) and establishing the earliest commune magistrates in 1138. Florence’s expansion (at the expense of the Pisa and Mugello territories) and its siding with the Pope made it the cornerstone of the Guelph movement. During these years Florence grew in population and size, expanding well over its former boundaries (the old Roman walls). The 13th century was marked by the struggle between the Guelphs, who supported the Pope, and the Ghibellines who supported the Emperor, with each faction vying for and momentarily gaining control over the city only to lose it after a while; the great poet Dante Alighieri (1285-1321), one of the greatest poets and authors of all times was among the key figures of these troubled years. Florence lost its independence for a few decades in the early 14th century but regained it very quickly and immediately launched a new territorial expansion campaign, conquering Arezzo, Cortona, Pistoia and Colle Val d’Elsa, effectively turning from a simple city-state to a regional state. In the 14th century the city’s ruling class underwent a time of crisis which led to turmoil, riots and revolts and brief “experiments in democracy”; at the end of this troubled time the powerful Medici family took power in their hands and established a Signoria de facto, without formally changing Florence’s political system and institutions. Under Cosimo and his son Lorenzo, the House of Medici brought Florence at the apex of its splendour and glory and played a key role in the complex, intricate game of checks and balances of Renaissance Italy. The most powerful Florentine families, through their patronage of the arts were instrumental in making Florence one of the most important cultural and intellectual hubs of the time. Architects, painters, philologists, sculptors and intellectuals transformed Florence from a simple city on the banks of the Arno into the cradle, mine and fulcrum of the age of Renaissance.

The death of Lorenzo de’ Medici marked the beginning of a time of instability and momentary return to the republican system, facilitated by the coming of Charles VIII of France in Italy. After the Holy League defeated the French the Medici rule was once again restored to Florence. In the days of the coming of the Landsknecht and the “Sack of Rome” (1527) the Medici power wavered and fell for a last time and a short-lived Republic of Florence formed, only to be defeated by the Pope-Charles V alliance. After the Medici power was restored Florence became, in 1530, a Principato (Principality) and further expanded its borders by conquest; later on Florence’s becoming an absolute monarchy decreased the city’s political influence and role but not its cultural primacy. As a matter of act Florence became one of the capitals of the scientific revolution of the 17th century thanks to such scientists and scholars like Galileo Galilei and to the Medici’s interest in astronomy and meteorology studies. In 1569 Cosimo I de’ Medici was appointed Grand Duke of Tuscany by the Pope. After the last descendant of the Medici died, the Grand Duchy came under the control of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (1737). During the Age of Enlightenment Florence became a mine of ideas and a breeding ground for the Enlightenment culture, to the point that the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was the first modern state to ban torture and death penalty from its laws in 1786. In the 19th century Florence at first came under French rule, which suppressed the Duchy and instituted in its place the Kingdom of Etruria (1801); in 1860 it was annexed to the newly established Kingdom of Italy, of which it was the capital between 1865 and 1870 to meet the demands of Napoleon III.

In November, 1966 the Arno overflowed, flooding much of the city. Churches, museums, libraries and works of art risked being lost, destroyed or damaged beyond repair by the deadly mixture of water, petrol and fuel oil that invaded the historic centre. The tragedy led to Florence hundreds of young people who ceaselessly worked to try and save the priceless heritage of the Cradle of the Renaissance from destruction.

The dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral, designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, was built between 1418 and 1436. Faced with the difficult task of building such an imposing structure, Brunelleschi found a brilliant and innovative solution. He had the dome built without any scaffolding: his dome actually consisted two concentric shells (two “domes”) and consequently two cavities; the inner dome was a self-supporting structure consisting mostly of ashlars arranged in a herringbone pattern, whereas the outer one was made to cover and protect the inner one. Atop the outer dome, overlooking Florence, stood another Brunelleschi design: a large lantern with cone-shaped roofs. Inside the dome was decorated by a Last Judgment fresco by Giorgio Vasari and Federico Zuccari. A 463 step staircase leads from the ground to the top of the dome, a long climb rewarded with a view of Florence that has no equals.

In 1432, Florence scored a major victory against Sienese forces in the battle of San Romano. This glorious episode inspired Paolo Uccello to paint one of the greatest masterpieces stored in the Uffizi. Initially commissioned by the wealthy Bartolini family the painting passed quickly in the hands of Lorenzo de’ Medici. The painting is a triptych of which only the central panel is currently at the Uffizi in Florence, while the others are in London and Paris. The central panel shows a crucial moment of the battle: The unseating of the Sienese Condottiero Bernardino della Ciarda. Uccello’s work on perspective, his utmost focus on naturalism and painstaking care in describing and portraying armours and horses make this picture one of the greatest works of transition between International Gothic and Renaissance.

Filippo Brunelleschi (Florence, 1377 – Florence, 1446)

Born into a wealthy family of notaries, Brunelleschi began to work at a very young age in a goldsmith’s shop and worked on the altar of the Church of San Jacopo in Pistoia. After losing the competition for the construction of the bronze panels for the Baptistery to Lorenzo Ghiberti, young Filippo moved to Rome with his friend Donatello. Here he focussed on the study of ancient monuments and classical architecture. When he came back to Florence, he worked on some sculptures, like the crucifix of Santa Maria Novella, and studied optics and perspective. In 1418 Brunelleschi won the competition for the construction of the Dome of the Cathedral of Florence. This monumental work, completed in 1436, became the symbol of a reborn, expanding civilisation. He also built other important buildings for the wealthiest Florentine families (Medici, Pazzi, Bicci and Pitti), often with the help of machines and mechanisms designed by him. Goldsmith, sculptor, architect and engineer; gifted with eclectic, multi-faceted skills and constantly inspired by the Classical tradition, Filippo Brunelleschi is the supreme example of the humanist intellectual, and the maker of countless works in Florence.

Lorenzo di Piero De’ Medici, also known as The Magnificent (Florence, 1449 – Florence, 1492)

The son of Piero de’ Medici, also known as the Gouty and Lucrezia Tornabuoni, Lorenzo was educated by some of the most important humanists of the time – Marsilio Ficino, Cristoforo Landino and Giovanni Agiropulo. In 1469, when his father died, Lorenzo was made the head of the Florentine Signoria through a plebiscite. The increasingly tense relations with Pope Sixtus IV worsened and led to the Pazzi conspiracy of 1478. The conspirators killed Giuliano (Lorenzo’s brother) but in the end Lorenzo was able to turn the whole conspiracy in his favour and consolidated the Medici’s power in Florence. After thwarting other conspiracies Lorenzo gradually became a key player in Italian politics capable of keeping, tipping or restoring the balance between the various powers. He died in Florence in 1492, comforted by the great intellectuals loyal to him like Poliziano and Pico Della Mirandola and by those who would later attempt to wrest the power over Florence from the Medici (Savonarola). Lorenzo was also a poet and intellectual who promoted the development of culture and art in Florence and in its domains. He founded academies, financed new renovations and architectural works, fostered and supported the rise of artists and intellectuals and was a tireless promoter of countless collections of “antiques” that in turn favoured the rediscovery of the ancient and classical artworks, a distinguishing feature of the Renaissance.

Agnolo Ambrogini also known as Poliziano ( Montepulciano, 1454 – Florence, 1494 )

Born in 1454 in the town of Mons Politianus (hence his nickname) Poliziano was educated in Florence at the Study of Cristoforo Landino, Giovanni Agiropulo and Andronico Callisto. An amazing connoisseur of Greek, Poliziano translated Homer’s Iliad in Latin and dedicated dedicating it to Lorenzo the Magnificent. Poliziano joined the Medici court (1475) as secretary of Lorenzo and tutor of his children; Poliziano devoted himself to writing and to the study of Latin and Greek classics. During these years he wrote the Stanzas. This work, inspired by the exploits and achievements of Giuliano (Lorenzo’s brother) is Poliziano’s masterpiece. Poliziano was involved in the events surrounding the Pazzi conspiracy (1478). Initially he supported the Medici but later, after his friendship with Lorenzo had ended, he left Florence to undertake a long journey around Italy that ended with his settling down in Mantua at the Court of Francesco Gonzaga. There he wrote Orpheus, one of his best known works. After returning to Florence and restoring his relationship with Lorenzo, Poliziano devoted himself to teaching and to the classical and philological studies except when he was part of Medici embassies. After the death of Lorenzo, Poliziano sought, with little success, to relocate at the Roman Curia and died of fever in 1494. Poliziano, with his tireless work of recovery and study of classical texts was one of the makers, animators and key figure of that cultural climate today known as the Renaissance.

►  “E come l’volger del ciel della luna / cuopre e riscopre i liti sanza posa, / così fa di Fiorenza la Fortuna: / per che non dee parer mirabil cosa / ciò ch’io dirò delli alti Fiorentini / onde è la fama nel tempo nascosa”.

Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia, Paradiso, XVI (XIV sec.)

 

► “La detta città di Firenze è molto bene popolata, e generativa per la buona aria: i cittadini ben costumati, e le donne molto belle e adorne: i casamenti bellissimi, pieni di molte bisognevoli arti, oltre all’altre città d’Italia. Per la qual cosa molti di lontani paesi la vengono a vedere, non per necessità, ma per bontà de’ mestieri ed arti, e per bellezza ed ornamento della città.

Piangano adunque i suoi cittadini sopra loro e sopra i loro figliuoli, i quali, per loro superbia e per loro malizia e per gara d’ufici, hanno così nobile città disfatta, e vituperate le leggi, e barattati gli onori in picciol tempo, i quali i loro antichi con molta fatica e con lunghissimo tempo hanno acquistato; e aspettino la giustizia di Dio, la quale per molti segni promette loro male sì come a colpevoli, i quali erano liberi da non potere essere soggiogati”.

Dino Compagni, Cronica delle cose occorrenti né tempi suoi (XIV sec.)

 

► “Firenze principale città di Toscana è una delle prime d’Italia, è posta alle radici del monte Apennino, dal quale è coperta dalla parte settentrionale e orientale, dove si veggono molti poggi, sopra de’ quali sono fondati di bellissimi palazzi e ville nobilissime che fanno parere la contrada molto dilettevole: verso occidente si stende in una amplissima pianura. È divisa in due parti dal fiume Arno sopra del quale sono quattro gran ponti di pietra per passare di qua e di là. Nella città sono edificii e sacri e profani di mirabile struttura e di spesa incredibile”.

Andrea Minucci, Descrizione di un viaggio fatto nel 1549 da Venezia a Parigi (XVI secolo)

 

The Florence monuments are not the only surviving testimony of the greatness of the Medici. The Villas that dot the surroundings of Florence proudly show that the Medici’s power extended far beyond the city walls. Built in the countryside surrounding Florence as well as in the conquered territories the country residences of the Medici are a manifesto of Renaissance taste and culture. Monumental gardens and fountains but also rich, fertile farmlands and rational architecture combine the Roman concept of otium and the Medici’s desire to own residences which adequately represented their glory and power. The Medici villas and the city of Florence are the liquid, constantly changing reflection of a world undergoing perpetual change, rebirth and transformation.

Nestled in the hills of the Val d’Orcia, Pienza was included in the World Heritage List in 1996. The historic centre of the town represents the Renaissance utopia of the ideal city and a manifesto of 15th century city-planning rules and trends. Pienza, formerly known as Corsignano, was established by the will of Pope Pius II (1405-1464), who wanted to re-think his native city and entrusted its restructuring to Bernardo di Matteo Gambardelli, also known as Rossellino, a student of Leon Battista Alberti. The symbol and heart of Pienza is the impressive square dedicated to Pope Pius II. Most of the historical and artistic heritage of the city can be found here. At the centre of the square stands the Cathedral of the Assumption, a rare and delicate balance of Gothic and Renaissance shapes and style. Next to the Cathedral stands Palazzo Piccolomini, a square-plan, three-floor stone palace enclosing a small court, a porch and a garden. The square is closed and completed by Palazzo Borgia, donated by Pope Pius II to the future Pope Alexander VI.

Ferrara, like Florence, owes much of its splendour to the age of Renaissance and to the patronage of the Este family. The city, originally built to serve as a Byzantine castrum and to replace the nearby Voghenza as a bishopric, grew gradually from the age of Communes onwards. In the 14th century Ferrara was at the centre of several conflicts with neighbouring cities (Verona, Mantua, Bologna and Venice) while in the second half of the 15th century it reached the peak of its greatness. Under the rule of Leonello, Borso and Ercole I d’Este, the city became the breeding ground of a unique school of painting whose main exponents include such names as Cosme Tura, Ercole de’ Roberti and Francesco del Cossa. Ferrara became home to such artists as Titian, Bellini, Dosso Dossi and authors and poets like Ludovico Ariosto, Torquato Tasso and Matteo Maria Boiardo. Ferrara became the ideal place to implement new urban concepts and in 1492 Ercole I commissioned to Biagio Rossetti the project to model the northern part of the city, widely known as “Erculean addition” which, with its regular avenues and palaces, became a symbol of the ideal city theorised by the humanists.

The ancient Roman city of Urvinum went under several different rulers throughout its history: Gothic, Byzantine, Lombard and Frank until the Frank King presented it to the Papacy. In 1200 its government passed into the hands of the Montefeltro family, who ruled it for three centuries. In particular, under Federico (1444-1482), who took care of administrative and city-planning reorganization Urbino reached the apex of its economic and cultural development; Urbino was home to artists and intellectuals of great renown such as Piero della Francesca, Francesco di Giorgio Martini, Giovanni Santi (Raphael’s father) and Baldassare Castiglione. At the beginning of the 16th century Urbino came under Della Rovere rule and its decline began. The city, built on an incredibly beautiful hill area welcomes its visitors with monuments and artworks of great value, such as the imposing, turreted Palazzo Ducale, completed by Laurana and presently home to the National Gallery of the Marches. The collections of the Gallery includes, among others, works by Raphael, Piero della Francesca, Titian and Paolo Uccello. The Cathedral, originally of Renaissance origin, was rebuilt after the 1789 earthquake in a neoclassical style by Valadier; the Cathedral hosts works by Barocci, Maratta and a rare Gaetano Callido organ. Among the many notable works that give this city its great historic, artistic and cultural value it is worth mentioning the Mausoleum of the Dukes, the former Monastery of Santa Chiara, the Ducal Stables and the astounding helical ramp that connects the Palace to the Stables.

Mantua and Florence have a lot of things in common: they both originated as Etruscan settlements, they both grew and expanded in the Roman period and both acquired and maintained an immense cultural and political value during the Renaissance thanks to their respective ruling house (Medici and Gonzaga). The connection between the two Signorias was consolidated by the marriage of Vincenzo Gonzaga and Eleonora de ‘Medici.

F. Cardini, Breve storia di Firenze, Pacini Editore, Pisa, 1990

G. Zucconi, P. Ruschi, Firenze guida all’architettura, Arsenale Editrice, Verona, 1995

Lapi Ballerini, Le ville medicee. Guida Completa, Giunti, Firenze, 2003

S. Bietoletti, E. Capretti, M. Chiarini, C. Cresti, A. Giusti, C. Morandi, A. Paolucci, M. Scalini, A. Tartuferi, Firenze arte e architettura, Magnus Edizioni, Firenze, 2005

Walter, Lorenzo il Magnifico e il suo tempo, Donzelli, Roma, 2005

G. Damiani, Le arti a Firenze. Tra gotico e rinascimento, Giunti Editore, Firenze, 2009

J. M. Najemy, Storia di Firenze. 1200-1575, Einaudi, Torino, 2014

whc.unesco.org/en/list/174

www.unesco.beniculturali.it

www.cittametropolitana.fi.it

www.firenzepatrimoniomondiale.it

www.regione.toscana.it

www.polomuseale.firenze.it

Between the 15th and 16th century, under the aristocratic rule of the Medici family, the city reached its apex becoming home, stage and showcase for some of the most important artists and intellectuals of the time. Painters such as Masaccio, Paolo Uccello, Sandro Botticelli and Raphael; architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti; sculptors such as Luca della Robbia and eclectic, versatile artists such as Michelangelo, Donatello and Leonardo Da Vinci created some of the most important masterpieces of human genius and intelligence in Florence. The wealth of the city and the protection of the Medici guaranteed it a vibrant intellectual life that allowed artists and intellectuals lie Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Poliziano and Landino to forge the very concept of Renaissance. Florence was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 (one of the earliest Italian entries), due to its importance in the field of town-planning, architecture and art in general.

History tells of Florence’s fortune, of its thriving, wealthy trading tradition and its gradual, ceaseless territorial expansion and conquests but it is the lively and sagacious spirit of the citizens that allowed Florence to “Signoreggiar le stelle”, that is rule the stars that govern the fate of humans and turn them to Florence’s favour. Florence had been a powerful commune and republic but it reached its true glory under the leadership of the Medici family. The powerful Signoria, who ruled the city up until the 18th century, had amazing foresight and chose to sponsor and support the arts and culture as a means to magnify Florence’s own greatness. Lorenzo de’ Medici, also called the Magnificent (1449-1492) is the brightest example of the Medici patronage . An excellent politician, humanist intellectual and prodigal patron, under Lorenzo Florence became a vital player, the only force capable of tipping, maintaining or restoring balance in the delicate scenario of Italian 15th century politics.

Florence is an amazing city where public and religious spaces are juxtaposed and sometimes even overlap. The Cathedral Square ) dominated by the imposing dome designed and built by Brunelleschi is the religious centre of the city. The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, often called simply the Duomo, together with the Giotto bell tower and the Baptistery of San Giovanni fill the square with their majesty. Near the square the basilicas of Santa Maria Novella , San Lorenzo and Santa Croce together form an amazing landscape of the major church complexes on the right bank on the Arno, in the heart of the historic centre. Piazza della Signoria, the main administrative centre holds some of the most important works of Renaissance art. Among them there are replicas of statues by Benvenuto Cellini, Donatello, Michelangelo, Giambologna and Bandinelli either on the Arengario of Palazzo Vecchio (the seat of the Signoria’s power and the political power in general) or sheltered by the “Loggia della Signoria” (also called “Loggia dei Lanzi”, short for “Lanzichenecchi“, Italian for Landsknecht, the soldiers that guarded it). The originals of these works can be found in various museums in Florence. To the South of the square, connected to the Palace through the Vasari Corridor (a covered elevated walkway that leads to Forte Belvedere, designed by architect Giorgio Vasari), the Uffizi Museum Complex contains masterpieces by Giotto, Cimabue, Donatello, Leonardo, Botticelli, Titian, Caravaggio and several other artists, covering a time span ranging from the Middle Ages until the 19th century, as well as ancient Roman and Hellenistic copies of original Greek sculptures. Ponte Vecchio, with its rich, prestigious goldsmith and silversmith shops connects the right bank with the Oltrarno district where Palazzo Pitti, home of the Medici family from the mid-sixteenth century onwards, is located. The garden of the palace, known as “Giardino di Boboli” (Boboli garden) is one of the most beautiful and famous examples of Italian garden decorated with sculptures from various ages, from ancient Rome to the contemporary age. The Santo Spirito and Carmine basilicas, featuring the amazing frescos by Masaccio and Masolino are the key Oltrarno religious buildings.

The Florentia medieval commune was originally an Etruscan settlement and was made a Roman colony in 59 BC by Julius Caesar. The city’s prestige grew in the late imperial period, when it became the capital of the Tuscia et Humbria province in 287. Florentia became a bishopric in the early 4th century and during the upheavals of the fifth and sixth centuries it was a staunch, proud Roman and Byzantine stronghold capable of withstanding the attacks of the Ostrogoths (405) and the siege of Totila. In the early Middle Ages Florence retained its importance: as part of the Lombard kingdom it was made the seat of a Gastaldo and of a curtis regia and in the Carolingian era it became even more important as one of the centres of diffusion of the Frankish Kings’ reform projects. The Ottonians made Florence a County and a key tool to wrest power from the Margraves of Tuscany. During the investiture controversy Florence took the side of the Church alongside Matilda of Canossa and began to assert its primacy over the neighbouring territories and establishing the earliest commune magistratures in 1138. Florence’s expansion (at the expense of the Pisa and Mugello territories) and its siding with the Pope made it the cornerstone of the Guelph movement. During these years Florence grew in population and size, expanding well over its former boundaries (the old Roman walls). The 13th century was marked by the struggle between the Guelphs, who supported the Pope, and the Ghibellines who supported the Emperor, with each faction vying for and momentarily gaining control over the city only to lose it after a while; the great poet Dante Alighieri (1285-1321), one of the greatest poets and authors of all times was among the key figures of these troubled years. Florence lost its independence for a few decades in the early 14th century but regained it very quickly and immediately launched a new territorial expansion campaign, conquering Arezzo, Cortona, Pistoia and Colle Val d’Elsa, effectively turning from a simple city-state to a regional state. In the 14th century the city’s ruling class underwent a time of crisis which led to turmoil, riots and revolts and brief “experiments in democracy”; at the end of this troubled time the powerful Medici family took power in their hands. Florence and the House of Medici reached the apex of their splendour and glory and played a key role in the complex, intricate game of checks and balances of Renaissance Italy. The most powerful Florentine families, through their patronage of the arts were instrumental in making Florence one of the most important cultural and intellectual hubs of the time. Architects, painters, philologists, sculptors and intellectuals transformed Florence from a simple city on the banks of the Arno into the cradle and fulcrum of the age of Renaissance.

The death of Lorenzo de’ Medici marked the beginning of a time of instability and momentary return to the republican system, facilitated by the coming of Charles VIII of France in Italy. After the Holy League defeated the French the Medici rule was once again restored to Florence. In the days of the coming of the Landsknecht and the ” Sack of Rome” (1527) the Medici power wavered and fell for a last time and a short-lived Republic of Florence formed, only to be defeated by the Pope-Charles V alliance. After the Medici power was restored Florence became, in 1530, a Principato (Principality) and further expanded its borders by conquest. Later on Florence was transformed in an absolute monarchy, a fact which decreased the city’s political influence and role but not its cultural primacy. As a matter of act Florence became one of the capitals of the scientific revolution of the 17th century thanks to such scientists and scholars like Galileo Galilei and to the Medici’s interest in astronomy and meteorology studies. In 1737 Florence came under the control of the house of Habsburg-Lorraine and, during the Age of Enlightenment it became a mine of ideas and a breeding ground for the Enlightenment culture, to the point that the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was the first modern state to ban torture and death penalty in 1786. In 19th century Florence passed first under French control and then it was annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia shortly before the latter became the Kingdom of Italy (1861). Florence was also the capital of Italy from 1865 to 1870 to meet the demands of Napoleon III.

In November, 1966 the Arno overflowed, flooding much of the city. Churches, museums, libraries and works of art risked being defaced, destroyed or damaged beyond repair by the deadly mixture of water, petrol and fuel oil that invaded the historic centre. The tragedy led to Florence hundreds of young people who ceaselessly worked to try and save the priceless heritage of the Cradle of the Renaissance from destruction, an amazing and unforgettable act of devotion to and sharing of the universal values of culture.

The dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral, designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, was built between 1418 and 1436. Faced with the difficult task of building such an imposing structure, Brunelleschi found a brilliant and innovative solution. The dome was built without scaffoldings, reinforcements or other wooden or metal supporting structures bu by means of two shells, a double cavity; the inner shell is a self-supporting structure consisting mostly of ashlars arranged in a herringbone pattern, whereas the outer one was made to cover and protect the inner one. Atop the outer dome, overlooking Florence, stands another Brunelleschi design: a large lantern with cone-shaped roofs. Inside the dome was decorated by a Last Judgment fresco by Giorgio Vasari and Federico Zuccari. A 463 step staircase leads from the ground to the top of the dome, a long climb rewarded with a view of Florence that has no equals.

In 1432, Florence scored a major victory against Sienese forces in the battle of San Romano. This glorious episode inspired Paolo Uccello to paint one of the greatest masterpieces stored in the Uffizi. Initially commissioned by the wealthy Bartolini family the painting passed quickly in the hands of Lorenzo de’ Medici . The painting is a tryptic of which only the central panel is currently at the Uffizi in Florence, while the others are in London and Paris. The central panel shows a crucial moment of the battle: The unseating of the Sienese Condottiero Bernardino della Ciarda. Uccello’s work on perspective, his utmost focus on naturalism and painstaking care in describing and portraying armours and horses make this picture one of the greatest works of transition between International Gothic and Renaissance.

Filippo Brunelleschi (Florence, 1377 – Florence, 1446)

Born into an affluent family of notaries, Brunelleschi began to work at a very young age in a goldsmith’s shop and worked on the altar of the the Church of San Jacopo in Pistoia. After losing the competition for the construction of the bronze tiles in the Baptistery to Lorenzo Ghiberti, the young Filippo moved to Rome with his friend Donatello. Here he focussed on the study of ancient monuments and classical architecture. When he came back to Florence, he worked on some sculptures, like the crucifix of Santa Maria Novella, and studied optics and perspective. In 1418 Brunelleschi won the competition for the construction of the Dome of the Cathedral of Florence. This monumental work, completed in 1436, became the symbol of a reborn, expanding civilisation. He also built other important buildings for the wealthiest Florentine families (Medici, Pazzi, Bicci and Pitti), often with the help of machines and mechanisms designed by him. he died in Florence in 1446. Goldsmith, sculptor, architect and engineer; gifted with eclectic, multi-faceted skills and constantly inspired by the Classical tradition, Filippo Brunelleschi is the supreme example of the intellectual humanist, Filippo Brunelleschi enriched Florence with countless masterworks.

Lorenzo di Piero De’ Medici, also known as The Magnificent (Florence, 1449 – Florence, 1492)

The son of Piero de’ Medici, also known as the Gouty and Lucrezia Tornabuoni, Lorenzo was educated by some of the most important humanists of the time – Marsilio Ficino, Cristoforo Landino and Giovanni Agiropulo. In 1469, upon his father’s death, Lorenzo inherited full control over Florence. The increasingly tense relations with Pope Sixtus IV worsened and led to the Pazzi conspiracy of 1478. The conspirators killed Giuliano (Lorenzo’s brother) but in the end Lorenzo was able to turn the whole conspiracy in his favour and consolidated the Medici’s power in Florence. After thwarting other conspiracies Lorenzo gradually became a key player capable of keeping, tipping or restoring the balance between the various powers in play in the Italian political and military arena. He died in Florence in 1492. Lorenzo de’ Medici was also a poet and intellectual who promoted the development of culture and art in Florence and in its domains. He founded academies, financed new renovations and architectural works, fostered and supported the rise of artists and intellectuals and was a tireless promoter of countless collections of “antiques” that in turn favoured the rediscovery of the ancient and classical artworks, a distinguishing feature of the Renaissance.

Agnolo Ambrogini also known as Poliziano ( Montepulciano, 1454 – Florence, 1494 )

Born in the town of Mons Politianus (hence his nickname) Poliziano was educated in Florence at the Study of Cristoforo Landino, Giovanni Agiropulo and Andronico Callisto. An amazing connoisseur of Greek, Poliziano translated Homer’s Iliad in Latin and dedicated dedicating it to Lorenzo the Magnificent. Poliziano joined the Medici court (1475) as secretary of Lorenzo and tutor of his children; Poliziano devoted himself to writing and to the study of Latin and Greek classics . During these years he wrote the Stanzas. This work, inspired by the exploits and achievements of Giuliano (Lorenzo’s brother) is Poliziano’s masterpiece. Poliziano was involved in the events surrounding the Pazzi conspiracy (1478). Initially he supported the Medici but later, after his friendship with Lorenzo had ended, he left Florence to undertake a long journey around Italy that ended with his settling down in Mantua at the Court of Francesco Gonzaga. There he wrote Orpheus, one of his best known works. After returning to Florence and restoring his relationship with Lorenzo, Poliziano devoted himself to teaching and to the classical and philological studies except when he was part of Medici embassies. After the death of Lorenzo, Poliziano tried, with little success, to find a place for himself at the Roman Curia and died of fever in 1494. Poliziano, with his tireless work of recovery and study of classical texts was one of the makers, animators and key figures of that cultural climate today known as the Renaissance.

The Florence monuments are not the only surviving testimony of the greatness of the Medici. The Villas that dot the surroundings of Florence proudly show that the Medici’s power extended far beyond the city walls. Built in the countryside surrounding Florence as well as in the conquered territories the country residences of the Medici are a manifesto of Renaissance taste and culture. Monumental gardens and fountains but also rich, fertile farmlands and rational architecture combine the Roman concept of otium and the Medici’s desire to own residences which adequately represented their glory and power. The Medici villas and the city of Florence are the liquid, constantly changing reflection of a world undergoing perpetual change, rebirth and transformation.

Nestled in the hills of the Val d’Orcia, Pienza was included in the World Heritage List in 1996. The historic centre of the town represents the Renaissance utopia of the ideal city and a manifesto of 15th century city-planning rules and trends. Pienza, formerly known as Corsignano, was established by the will of Pope Pius II (1405-1464), who wanted to re-think his native city and entrusted its restructuring to Bernardo di Matteo Gambardelli, also known as Rossellino, a student of Leon Battista Alberti. The symbol and heart of Pienza is the impressive square dedicated to Pope Pius II. Most of the historical and artistic heritage of the city can be found here. At the centre of the square stands the Cathedral of the Assumption, a rare and delicate balance of Gothic and Renaissance shapes and style. Next to the Cathedral stands Palazzo Piccolomini, a square-plan, three-floor stone palace enclosing a small court, a porch and a garden. The square is closed and completed by Palazzo Borgia, donated by Pope Pius II to the future Pope Alexander VI.

Ferrara, like Florence, owes much of its splendour to the age of Renaissance and to the patronage of the Este family. The city, originally built to serve as a Byzantine castrum and to replace the nearby Voghenza as a bishopric, grew gradually from the age of Communes onwards. In the 14th century Ferrara was at the centre of several conflicts with neighbouring cities (Verona, Mantua, Bologna and Venice) while in the second half of the 15th century it reached the peak of its greatness. Under the rule of Leonello, Borso and Ercole I d’Este, the city became the breeding ground of a unique school of painting whose main exponents include such names as Cosme Tura, Ercole de’ Roberti and Francesco del Cossa. Ferrara became home to such artists as Titian, Bellini, Dosso Dossi and authors and poets like Ludovico Ariosto, Torquato Tasso and Matteo Maria Boiardo. Ferrara became the ideal place to implement new urban concepts and in 1492 Ercole I commissioned to Biagio Rossetti the project to model the northern part of the city, widely known as “Erculean addition” which, with its regular avenues and palaces, became a symbol of the ideal city theorised by the humanists.

The ancient Roman city of Urvinum went under several different rulers throughout its history: Gothic, Byzantine, Lombard and Frank until the Frank King presented it to the Papacy. In 1200 its government passed into the hands of the Montefeltro family, who ruled it for three centuries. In particular, under Federico (1444-1482), who took care of administrative and city-planning reorganization Urbino reached the apex of its economic and cultural development; Urbino was home to artists and intellectuals of great renown such as Piero della Francesca, Francesco di Giorgio Martini, Giovanni Santi (Raphael’s father) and Baldassare Castiglione. At the beginning of the 16th century Urbino came under Della Rovere rule and its decline began. The city, built on an incredibly beautiful hill area welcomes its visitors with monuments and artworks of great value, such as the imposing, turreted Palazzo Ducale, completed by Laurana and presently home to the National Gallery of the Marches. The collections of the Gallery includes, among others, works by Raphael, Piero della Francesca, Titian and Paolo Uccello. The Cathedral, originally of Renaissance origin, was rebuilt after the 1789 earthquake in a neoclassical style by Valadier; the Cathedral hosts works by Barocci, Maratta and a rare Gaetano Callido organ. Among the many notable works that give this city its great historic, artistic and cultural value it is worth mentioning the Mausoleum of the Dukes, the former Monastery of Santa Chiara, the Ducal Stables and the astounding helical ramp that connects the Palace to the Stables.

Mantua and Florence have a lot of things in common: they both originated as Etruscan settlements, they both grew and expanded in the Roman period and both acquired and maintained an immense cultural and political value during the Renaissance thanks to their respective ruling house (Medici and Gonzaga). The connection between the two Signorias was consolidated by the marriage of Vincenzo Gonzaga and Eleonora de ‘Medici.

Absolute monarchy: a form of government where the monarch holds and exercises all legislative, executive and judiciary powers. Absolute power is justified by the concept of the “divine right of kings”, which implies that the authority of a ruler derives directly from God.

Administration: the activity or set of activities that regulates, organizes and controls a company, an organization or a public or private body.

Administrative: see Administration.

Affluent: wealthy, rich, wealthy.

Age of Enlightenment: the eighteenth century, the century in which the political, social, cultural and philosophical movement of Enlightenment develops in Europe, reaching its apex in France. The term Enlightenment has come to mean, in a broader sense, any philosophy or thought which aims at “Enlightening” the mind of mankind and to cast away the darkness, ignorance and superstition with reason and science.

Apex: the highest point, peak, top.

Arena: a vast, autonomous region in which several forces struggle and fight. May be used in political and military sense.

Antiques : old or out-of-fashion, objects, antiquities.

Ashlar : a stone cut into a regular shape.

Baptistery: a centrally planned building dedicated to the sacrament of baptism. The baptistery is covered by a dome and contains the baptismal font, which stores the holy water to be used for baptisms.

Bulwark : obstacle, natural or artificial, which opposes, successfully, to the passage of men and things.

Cavity : in construction, an empty space between two vertical elements (walls) or horizontal (roofs) of a building, used for technical or structural purposes.

Climate: condition, atmosphere, environment (also figuratively).

Conspiracy: a secret plot, plan or scheming against someone.

Curtis: economic and legal body in the feudal system. The Curtis was basically a closed, self-sufficient body which handled the whole production and exchange cycle and it was also had an administrative and independent judicial system.

Defaced: ruined, damaged, disfigured and corrupted.

Dome: architectural structure with a pointed arch or hemispherical cross-section, supported by a drum; the drum is the structural element connecting the dome to the building below it.

Duomo (Italian): cathedral, from Latin Domus Dei , Domus Ecclesiae ‘House of God’, ‘House of the Church’. The cathedral (called Duomo in many Italian cities) is the most important church in a city. Only bishop seats are eligible to become cathedrals.

Eclectic : said of someone who has multiple and multifaceted skills and capacities.

Embassy: a group of diplomatic agents on a mission in a foreign state.

Enlightenment: see “Age of Enlightenment”.

Financial : dealing with finance, that is, the activity carried out by the State or public bodies to procure the necessary means (goods, money, ..) to achieve its goals.

Forge: to shape, form, fabricate.

Gastaldo: in the Lombard Kingdom, the administrator of a curtis regia, over which he had direct and immediate authority and extensive political and administrative powers within the territory entrusted to him.

Gothic: a style of art and architecture which originated around 1100 in the region around Paris, and then spread throughout Europe, with very complex and varied features. The most impressive innovation of Gothic architecture is the disappearance of the heavy, thick walls typical of Romanesque architecture: the weight of the structure was, instead, distributed on pillars and on secondary structures located outside the buildings. This left space for the “walls of light”, featuring large, magnificent stained glass windows. The flying buttresses, pinnacles and relieving arches absorbed and redirected to the ground the side thrusts of the covering structure.

Habsburg-Lorraine: a noble House and dynasty established through the marriage of Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen of Lorraine.

Humanism: the history of thought, art and literature, the period between the last decades of the 14th century and the late 15th century, characterized by a renewed passion for the study of antiquity.

Humanist: see Humanism.

International Gothic: the last stage of the Gothic style.

Lantern: structure placed at the top of a dome. Its function is to diffuse light into the dome via the windows in its vertical walls, and for this reason (and also because of its shape being similar to a street lantern) it is called lantern.

Landsknecht: a mercenary infantryman primarily enrolled in the German regions of the Holy Roman Empire, widely used in battle from the late 15th to the end of the 17th century.

Magistrature : a complex of public bodies and institutions that have judicial functions in civil, criminal, constitutional and administrative areas.

Patronage: support to artistic and cultural activities and to the artists involved in such activities.

Perspective: set of geometrical and mathematical procedures used to build an image of a three-dimensional figure on a plane.

Philology: the study of literary texts for the purpose of reconstructing their original form. This word is however used also in other areas, such as music and art.

Plebiscite: in Roman law, a decision taken only by the people (the plebeians) gathered in the concilium plebis (Assembly of the Plebeians).

Prodigal: generous, magnanimous.

Renaissance: artistic and cultural period of European history which started in Florence from the end of the Middle Ages to the Early Modern age, that is from the second half of the 14th century to the 16thcentury and matured a new way of conceiving the world and humans, developing the ideas of humanism and driving these ideas to influence, for the first time in history, the visual arts and people’s mentality.

Sagacious: wise, sensible, intelligent.

Tile: ornamental slab used in paving or other types of decoration, also: decorated element encased in a frame.

Town-planning: the study of the features of territories inhabited by humans and of their development. Its purpose, as the name suggests, is to study how to plan and design the urban territory and the way it changes.

Tutor: in the past this word was used to indicate a private teacher in charge of education of the offspring of noble and wealthy families.

Vibrant: fervent, lively, intense.