Etruscan necropolises of Cerveteri and Tarquinia

The Etruscans are the only urban civilization in pre-Roman Italy; the most ancient stage coincides with the transition from the Bronze Age to the early Iron Age (late 10^th – early 9^th century BC) and is characterized by the presence of scattered settlements: small villages of huts on hills. A significant change occurred in the late 8^th century BC:  the small villages were progressively abandoned and the population tended to concentrate on larger urban areas on hills, surrounded by walls and natural defences and with an initial organization of public spaces, giving birth to the first towns. In that period, called orientalising and corresponding to the 7^th century BC, powerful oligarchies raised to power in the main Etruscan towns; this strong social hierarchization can be seen in the necropolises and the monumental tumuli, especially in Cerveteri, are the most representative example of the power of the Etruscan princes. The archaeological site included in the World Heritage List consists of two areas: the Banditaccia Necropolis in Cerveteri (RM) and the Monterozzi Necropolis in Tarquinia (VT). The Banditaccia Necropolis is the most important and famous of the ancient Caere, extends for tens of hectares and includes monumental tombs with unique characteristics. The Monterozzi Necropolis, famous for the presence of hundreds of painted tombs, is one of the most extraordinary archaeological complexes in the Mediterranean area.

The Banditaccia Etruscan Necropolis in Cerveteri is the main example of Etruscan funerary architecture and one of the most important archaeological sites in the Mediterranean area. The visitable area, approximately ten hectares, is called “of the Fence” and was systematically excavated from 1909 to 1933 by Raniero Mengarelli (old fence) and, after the Second World War, by Mario Moretti (new fence). This ancient cemetery extends for hundreds of hectares on a tuffaceous plateau to the west of the ancient Civita. The tombs were excavated through the tuffaceous bank, accurately reproducing the plan and the furniture of contemporary dwellings. It is possible to chronologically follow and understand the evolution of Etruscan funerary architecture over more than six centuries. The most ancient tombs, dating back to the early 7^th century BC, are tumulus shaped. One or more tombs were realized within these huge circular structures and used by the different generations of the same family. The 7^th century BC corresponds to the Orientalizing stage: Etruria, like many other regions of the ancient Mediterranean area, was influenced by the art of the Near East. The interior of the tombs shows a common plan, two or three rooms along a longitudinal axis, and the double pitched ceiling refers to a structure still similar to a hut. In its initial stage (7^th – 6^th century BC), the necropolis was an area dotted with huge tumuli surrounded by monumental buildings with the same shape and smaller size. This layout of the tombs suggests an archaic society organized around the figure of aristocratic princes. Around the second half of the 6^th century BC (archaic period), the tombs were built along parallel roads, with a more regular shape known as “diced” that reflects an egalitarian urban society with a more homogenous distribution of wealth, in which the tombs assume a standard appearance. The 6^th century BC coincided with the maximum territorial expansion of Etruria, with newly established colonies in the Po Valley and the Adriatic coasts, a monopoly on the trade routes of the western Mediterranean sea and Etruscan kings ruling Rome. Afterwards, between the 4^th and 1^st centuries BC, due to the lack of available space on the surface, tombs began to be built underground, lowering the road level and creating a series of hypogea at greater depth, some of them of significant size such as the Tomb of Reliefs and other simpler ones, aligned on precise patterns. Again, the divarication within the Etruscan society is evident. This last stage of the Etruscan history was characterized by the loss of control on the Tyrrhenian trade routes and the wars against Rome, which conquered all the Etruscan cities in a century and a half.

Tarquinia is located not far from the Tyrrhenian coast, like most centres in southern Etruria. According to tradition, it was founded by Tarconte by order of the mythical hero Tyrrhene; in Tarquinia the genius Tagete, Jupiter’s grandson, is said to have leaped out from a furrow and given the twelve cities of the Etruscan people the rudiments of the haruspex knowledge. The myth seems to agree with the archaeological documentation dating back to the early Iron Age (9^th – 8^th centuries BC), a period that saw the strengthening of ancient tribal ties in religious-cultural terms and the conversions of the scattered built up areas towards the Pian di Civita area. The necropolises of this stage are characterized by cremation tombs, with funeral equipment consisting of simple items but with a great symbolic value. Following the economic growth of the 8^th century BC and the several contacts with the external world, funerary rites changed to burial. Tumulus tombs became the territorial symbol of Tarquinia princes, full of items of value imported from Phoenicia, Greece and the East. The appearance of handicraft productions and trade and cultural relationships were the distinctive characteristics of Tarquinia in the 7^th century BC, a city totally ready to accept external influences. Indeed, tradition places in this period the arrival in Tarquinia of Demaratus, a rich trader from the Greek town of Corinth, who spread different arts among the Etruscans and was the father of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the first Etruscan king of Rome. This agrees with the remains of an important sacred area used for Greek cults and founded approximately in 600 BC at the main port of the city. Moreover, under the influence of Eastern-Greek painters, one of the most original artistic productions in Tarquinia developed in the 6^th century BC: funerary painting. Daily life scenes of the dead person and funeral rituals are the most frequent representations. This exceptional season – defined as “the first chapter of Italian painting history” by the great etruscologist Massimo Pallottino – lasted until the Hellenistic period (4^th – 3^rd century BC). The crisis that hit Etruria after the defeat suffered by the Etruscans at Cuma in 474 BC only partially affected the “great and flourishing” Tarquinia. In the 4^th century BC, the main temple of the city – known as the Altar of the Queen – was restored and embellished with a new decoration of architectural terrecotte of great value, such as the group of the Winged Horses found in 1938. The progressive expansion of Roman power seemed to try sorely the city for the whole 4^th century until Tarquinia was defeated and conquered by Rome in 281 BC. As always, the necropolises faithfully reflect the city life, showing a reduction in the number of aristocratic tombs, a sign of the unequivocal decline of the “richest city in Etruria”.

Unlike Greek and Roman women, Etruscan women had an intense social life. They took part in banquets, a real moment of cultural, political and religious gathering, a role reserved to men in the Greek and Roman society.

Cerveteri. The ancient Caere (its Latin name) was known by the Greeks as Agylla for its cosmopolitan nature. We know also the Etruscan name thanks to two inscriptions found in tombs: Caisra or Ceisra. The current name of Cerveteri derives from the contraction of the Latin name Caere with the adjective Vetus, added in the Middle Ages when, due to malaria and frequent Saracen invasions, the inhabitants moved to the current suburb of Ceri (9 km to the northeast) known as Caere Novum at the time.

Tarquinia. Greek historians relate the city foundation to the hero Tarconte, son of the Lydian king Attis and brother of Tyrrhene, the eponymous hero of the Etruscans. The city Etruscan name, as proven by different inscriptions, was Tarchna or Tarchuna, while the Romans called it Tarquinii. According to tradition, the famous dynasty of Etruscan kings that ruled Rome (second half and end of the 6^th century BC) was from Tarquinia. Toscana.  In the Augustan division of the Italian peninsula, the VII Regio corresponded to Etruria, Tuscia in Latin, from which the region current name derives.

Ancient historians paid close attention to the origins of Mediterranean peoples, often relating them to mythical circumstances. As for the Etruscans, this interest was even higher due to the close trade, economic and political relationships between the Greeks and the Etruscans as well as the differences between their economic and social systems.  Today, the methods used by historians are totally different and focused on cultural aspects. Between the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age (10^th – 9^th century BC), central-northern Italy was characterized by the uniform presence of a culture known as Villanovan. With the increase in trade and economic exchanges with other areas (Greek and Eastern Greek world) between the late 8^th and the early 7^th century BC, this culture rapidly developed, often accepting foreign traders and craftsmen who influenced local populations with their contributions. The birth of the Etruscan culture was the result of these two elements.

The Etruscans were famous for their maritime abilities as skilful navigators who, according to some classical authors, practised piracy. In the first half of the 6^th century BC, they controlled almost all the trade routes of the western Mediterranean sea. Indeed, the Tyrrhenian Sea owes its name to them, who were known as Tirrenoi by the Greeks.  The Romans considered them experts on the art of divination. Etruscan priests were divided into three categories: Haruspexes could divine the future by analysing animal bowels, augurs could interpret the gods’ will by reading the flight of birds, while fulgurari practiced the art of divination through lightening. Another distinctive characteristic of this civilization, maybe the most known, is the cult of the dead.  The Etruscans believed in an afterlife that continued inside the tomb. The magnificent frescoes in Tarquinia prove that this passage was seen, at least in the archaic age, as a natural continuation of earthly life. Competitions and sports games, musicians and dancers cheered the sumptuous banquets of aristocrats laying back on klìnai and drinking wine served in precious drinking cups and goblets. The presence of women at banquets must be highlighted:  Etruscan women, laying near their spouse, seem to take part in social life. Finally, the thorny issue of the Etruscan language, which is no longer mysterious as it was defined until a few decades ago, but rather not fully understood yet.  The numerous inscriptions that have come to us are mainly from funerary contexts and, therefore, we are able to read it, understand some meanings and identify some verbal forms.

Two lionesses are painted on the pediment of the back wall of the Tomb of Lionesses (discovered in 1874 and dating back to the last quarter of the 6^th century BC). Below, the main scene features a crater (a large vase used to mix wine and water at banquets) in the centre, two musicians – a flautist and a citharist – on the sides; a dancer elegantly wearing a long chiton and a tutulus (hat) on the left; two dancers, a young girl with a transparent dress and a totally naked muscular young man with dark skin and blond hair, on the right. The high quality of the drawing and the brightness of the colours allow to attribute this tomb to Easter-Greek artists.

The Sarcophagus of the Married Couple is certainly the most famous Etruscan masterpiece. This large cinerary urn represents a couple laying on an Eastern-Greek type bed. The motif of the ultramundane banquet well summarized the values of the aristocratic class in the archaic period (6^th century BC), combining aspects of ceremonial banquets and funerary rites. The work dates back between 530 and 510 BC and was made by a Cerveteri workshop, which made different copies of the same subject, two of which have come intact to us, though restored (the sarcophagus of Villa Giulia in Rome and the sarcophagus of the Louvre Museum in Paris), plus a fragment of a third sarcophagus and a series of urns of smaller size.

►   “Una strana immobilità, una quiete particolare aleggiano nei luoghi etruschi dove sono stato, un’atmosfera ben differente dall’incanto sinistro dei paesaggi celtici, dalla sensazione un po’ repellente che danno Roma e la sua vecchia campagna, dall’orrore delle grandi piramidi del Messico, Teotihuacan, Cholula e Mitla al sud, o dall’idolatria gentile dei luoghi del Budda a Ceylon. Intorno a questi grandi tumuli erbosi, cinti da antichi basamenti in muratura, c’è una certa dolce tranquillità, una sensazione di intimità felice che spira ancora per il viale principale. È  vero che era un sereno pomeriggio di sole in aprile, e che le allodole si alzavano in volo dall’erba soffice dei tumuli, ma nell’aria tutt’attorno c’era un’immobilità suadente e si sentiva che star lì, in quel posto mezzo infossato, faceva bene all’anima…”.

D.H. Lawrence, Etruscan Places

►  “Bella è anche la Tomba delle Leonesse. Nel timpano due leonesse maculate fanno oscillare le mammelle simili a campane, fronteggiandosi araldicamente ai due lati dell’altare. Sotto c’è un grande vaso, e ai suoi due lati un flautista e un liutista suonano rivolti al suo sacro contenuto. Ai due lati di questi corre un sottile fregio di danzatori, molto energici e vivaci nell’incedere. Sotto al fregio di danzatori c’è uno zoccolo di foglie di loto, e sotto ancora, tutt’intorno alla stanza, i delfini fanno balzi, tutti all’ingiù, nel mare increspato, mentre su di essi volano uccelli.”

D.H. Lawrence, Etruscan Places

►  “La storia di Roma, e con essa lo sviluppo culturale dell’intero Occidente, non si può intendere se non si conosce la civiltà dell’Oriente, presa e adattata dagli Etruschi alla loro tradizione e al loro genio” .

Axel Boethius, 1958

►  “La donna aveva una posizione di rilievo tra gli aristocratici etruschi poiché questi ultimi

erano pochi e spesso impegnati in guerra. Spettava alla donna, in caso di morte dell’uo-

mo, il compito di assicurare la conservazione delle ricchezze e la continuità della famiglia:

attraverso di lei avveniva anche la trasmissione dell’eredità. […] Le donne nobili avevano il

privilegio di indossare abiti un po’ più raffinati e di sfoggiare numerosi tipi di gioielli, scelti

tra i più pregiati. Gli Etruschi, dato che erano un popolo matriarcale, usavano dare il co-

gnome della donna al bambino appena nato”

(Roberto Bosi, Il paese degli Etruschi: storia, archeologia, ambiente, gastronomia, Calderini, 1993).

The connection between the Etruscan civilization in Cerveteri and Tarquinia and Rome is based on geographic closeness. It must be highlighted also that Tarquinius Priscus, one of the kings of Rome, came from Tarquinia. Therefore, it is inevitable that some aspects of the Etruscan culture can be found also in the Roman one.

M. Pallottino, La necropoli di Cerveteri, Roma 1939;

B. Pace et al., Caere. Scavi di R. Mengarelli, Monumenti Antichi dei Lincei, XLII, 1955;

AA.VV., Cerveteri. Scavi della Banditaccia, Notizie degli Scavi, 1955, 46-113;

F. Prayon, Früetruskische Grab- und Hausarchitektur, Heidelberg 1975;

M. Moretti, Cerveteri, Roma 1977;

F. Enei, La via degli Inferi, Archeologia, 1985, 11-14;

G. Proietti, Cerveteri, Roma 1986;

M. Cristofani et al., Caere 1. Il parco archeologico, Roma 1988;

M. Cristofani, Cerveteri. Tre itinerari archeologici, Roma 1991;

M. Cristofani et al., Caere 3.1. Lo scarico arcaico della Vigna Parrocchiale, Roma 1992;

M. Cristofani et al., Caere 3.2. Lo scarico arcaico della Vigna Parrocchiale, Roma 1993;

R. Cosentino, Cerveteri e il suo territorio, Roma 1995;

A.M. Moretti Sgubini, Veio, Cerveteri, Vulci. Città d’Etruria a confronto, Catalogo della Mostra, Roma 2001;

M. Cristofani et al., Caere 4. Vigna Parrocchiale: scavi 1983-1989. Il santuario, la ‘residenza’ e l’edificio ellittico, Roma 2003;

L. Drago, Cerveteri, Roma 2006;

M. Torelli, A.M. Sgubini Moretti, Etruschi. le antiche metropoli del Lazio, Catalogo della Mostra, Milano 2008;

AA.VV., Munera Ceretana in ricordo di Mauro Cristofani, Mediterranea, V, 2008.

whc.unesco.org/en/list/1158/

www.comune.cerveteri.rm.it/

www.comune.tarquinia.vt.it

www.etruriameridionale.beniculturali.it

The Etruscans are the only urban civilization in pre-Roman Italy; the most ancient stage coincides with the transition from the Bronze Age to the early Iron Age (late 10^th – early 9^th century BC) and is characterized by the presence of small villages of huts scattered on hills. In the late 8^th century BC,  the small villages were progressively abandoned and the population concentrated on larger urban areas, surrounded by walls and natural defences. In that period (7^th century BC), the towns were ruled by powerful family of princes, as shown by the large tumuli that, especially in Cerveteri, reach a monumental size. The archaeological site included in the World Heritage List consists of two areas: the Banditaccia Necropolis in Cerveteri (Rome) and the Monterozzi Necropolis in Tarquinia (Viterbo). The Banditaccia Necropolis is the most important and famous of the ancient Etruscan town Caere, extends for tens of hectares and includes monumental tombs with unique characteristics. The Monterozzi Necropolis, famous for the presence of hundreds of painted tombs, is one of the most extraordinary archaeological complexes in the Mediterranean area.

The Banditaccia Etruscan Necropolis in Cerveteri is the main example of Etruscan funerary architecture and one of the most important archaeological sites in the Mediterranean area. The visitable area, approximately ten hectares, is called “of the Fence” and was systematically excavated only starting from the 20^th century.  This ancient cemetery extends on a tuffaceous plateau where the tombs were excavated by accurately reproducing the structure, the dwellings and the furniture typical of Etruscan towns. The Banditaccia necropolis is so important for this reason: it is a city of the dead that reproduces the city of the living, allowing scholars to know the Etruscan people.

Tarquinia is located not far from the Tyrrhenian coast, like most centres in southern Etruria. According to tradition, it was founded by Tarconte by order of the mythical hero Tyrrhene; in Tarquinia the genius Tagete, Jupiter’s grandson, is said to have leaped out from a furrow and given the twelve cities of the Etruscan people the rudiments of the haruspex knowledge. The myth seems to agree with the archaeological documentation dating back to the early Iron Age (9^th – 8^th centuries BC), a period that saw the strengthening of ancient tribal ties. The necropolises of this stage are characterized by cremation tombs, with funeral equipment consisting of simple items but with a great symbolic value. Following the economic growth of the 8^th century BC and the several contacts with the external world, funerary rites turned into burial. Tumulus tombs became the symbol of the power of Tarquinia princes, full of items of value imported from Phoenicia, Greece and the East. The appearance of handicraft productions and trade and cultural relationships were the distinctive characteristics of Tarquinia in the 7^th century BC. Moreover, under the influence of Eastern-Greek painters, one of the most original artistic productions in Tarquinia greatly developed from the 6^th to the 3^rd century BC: funerary painting. Daily life scenes of the dead person and funeral rituals are the most frequent representations. The crisis that hit Etruria after the defeat suffered by the Etruscans at Cuma in 474 BC only partially affected the “great and flourishing” Tarquinia. The progressive expansion of Roman power seemed to try sorely the city for the whole 4^th century until Tarquinia was defeated and conquered by Rome in 281 BC. As always, the necropolises faithfully reflect the city life, showing a reduction in the number of aristocratic tombs, a sign of the unequivocal decline of the “richest city in Etruria”.

Unlike Greek and Roman women, Etruscan women had an intense social life. They took part in banquets, a real central moment of cultural, political and religious life, a role reserved to men in the Greek and Roman society.

Cerveteri. The ancient Caere (its Latin name) was known by the Greeks as Agylla for its cosmopolitan nature. We know also the Etruscan name thanks to two inscriptions found in tombs: Caisra or Ceisra. The current name of Cerveteri derives from the contraction of the Latin name Caere with the adjective vetus, added in the Middle Ages when, due to malaria and frequent Saracen invasions, the inhabitants moved to the current suburb of Ceri (9 km to the northeast) known as Caere Novum at the time.

Tarquinia. Greek historians relate the city foundation to the hero Tarconte, son of the Lydian king Attis and brother of Tyrrhene. The city Etruscan name, as proven by different inscriptions, was Tarchna or Tarchuna, while the Romans called it Tarquinii. According to tradition, the famous dynasty of Etruscan kings that ruled Rome (second half and end of the 6t^h century BC) was from Tarquinia.

Ancient historians paid close attention to the origins of Mediterranean peoples, often relating them to mythical circumstances. As for Etruscans, this interest was even higher due to the close trade, economic and political relationships between the Greeks and the Etruscans. Today, the methods used by historians are totally different and focused on cultural aspects. Between the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age (10^th – 9^th century BC), central-northern Italy was characterized by the uniform presence of a culture known as Villanovan. With the increase in trade and economic exchanges with other areas (Greek and Eastern Greek world) between the late 8^th and the early 7^th century BC,, this culture rapidly developed, often accepting foreign traders and craftsmen who influenced local populations with their contributions. The birth of the Etruscan culture was the result of these two elements (autochthonous and foreign).

Tradition places in the 7^th century BC the arrival in Tarquinia of Demaratus, a rich trader from the Greek town of Corinth, who spread different arts among the Etruscans and was the father of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the first Etruscan king of Rome. This agrees with the remains of an important sacred area used for Greek cults and founded approximately in 600 BC at the main port of the city.

The Etruscans were famous for their maritime abilities as skilful navigators who, according to some classical authors, practised piracy. In the first half of the 6^th century BC, they controlled almost all the trade routes of the western Mediterranean sea. Indeed, the Tyrrhenian Sea owes its name to them, who were known as Tirrenoi by the Greeks. The Romans considered them experts on the art of divination. Etruscan priests were divided into three categories: Haruspexes could divine the future by analysing animal bowels, augurs could interpret the gods’ will by reading the flight of birds, while fulgurari practiced the art of divination through lightening. Another distinctive characteristic of this civilization, maybe the most known, is the cult of the dead. The Etruscans believed in an afterlife that continued inside the tomb. The magnificent frescoes in Tarquinia prove that this passage was seen, at least in the archaic age, as a natural continuation of earthly life. Competitions and sports games, musicians and dancers cheered the sumptuous banquets of aristocrats laying back on klìnai and drinking wine served in precious drinking cups and goblets. The presence of women at banquets must be highlighted:  Etruscan women, laying near their spouse, seem to take part in social life. Finally, the thorny issue of the Etruscan language, which is no longer mysterious as it was defined until a few decades ago, but rather not fully understood yet.  The numerous inscriptions that have come to us are mainly from funerary contexts and, therefore, we are able to read it, understand some meanings and identify some verbal forms.

Two lionesses are represented on the back wall of the Tomb of Lionesses (discovered in 1874 and dating back to the last quarter of the 6^th century BC). Below, the main scene features a crater in the centre, two musicians – a flautist and a citharist – on the sides; an elegantly dancer on the left; two dancers, a young girl with a transparent dress and a totally naked muscular young man with dark skin and blond hair, on the right. The high quality of the drawing and the brightness of the colours allow to attribute this tomb to Easter-Greek artists.

The Sarcophagus of the Married Couple is certainly the most famous Etruscan masterpiece. This large cinerary urn represents a couple laying on an Eastern-Greek type bed. The motif of the ultramundane banquet well summarized the values of the aristocratic class in the archaic period (6^th century BC), combining aspects of ceremonial banquets and funerary rites. The work dates back between 530 and 510 BC and was made by a Cerveteri workshop, which made different copies of the same subject, two of which have come intact to us, though restored (the sarcophagus displayed at Villa Giulia in Rome and the sarcophagus of the Louvre Museum in Paris).

The connection between the Etruscan civilization in Cerveteri and Tarquinia and Rome is based on geographic closeness. It must be highlighted also that Tarquinius Priscus, one of the kings of Rome, came from Tarquinia. Therefore, it is inevitable that some aspects of the Etruscan culture can be found also in the Roman one.

Funerary rooms, rooms of buildings built to host the body or the remains of the dead person.

Tumuli, plural of tumulus, a circular shaped funerary monument consisting of a drum (i.e. a lower part with funerary rooms inside) and a top (i.e. an upper part with the shape of a vault of a dome).

Plateau, a not very large or high tableland.

Tuffaceous, from tuff, a particular rock of volcanic origin.

Haruspex, the priest who examined certain aspects of nature to interpret the Gods’ will in the Roman antiquity and the Mediterranean area. Haruspexes could divine the future by analysing animal bowels and gave their predictions based on traditional patterns established by the art of divination.

Cremation,  funerary habit of burning the dead to convert them into ashes.

Burial, funerary habit of bury the body of the dead.

Aristocratic, related to noble families.

Klìnai, plural of Klìne, a wooden bed that in ancient cultures was used at banquets. From the Greek κλίνη «bed».

Crater, in ancient times, a large vase used to mix water and wine at banquets. Its shape is similar to a large funnel, because the mouth of the vase is larger than the base.

Autochthonous, with reference to a people and its culture, from the same place in which it develops. From the Greek αὐτός «same» and χϑών «land».

Foreign, of another line or nation.

Art of divination, the ability to obtain information from supernatural sources through sacred rituals.